19-4 OTHER WAYS OF EXPRESSING CAUSE AND EFFECT: SUCH.....THAT AND SO.......THAT

a)  Because the weather was nice, we went to the zoo.
b)  It was such nice weather that we went to the zoo.
c)  The weather was so nice that we went to the zoo.
EXAMPLE a) b) and c) have the same meaning.

d) It was such good coffee that I had another cup.
e) It was such a foggy day that we could not see the road.
Such .....that   enclose a modified noun: such+ adjective+ noun+that

f) The coffee is so hot that I can not drink it.
g) I am so hungry that I could eat a horse
h) She speaks so fast that I can not understand her.
i) He walked so quickly that I could not keep up with him
So..... that  encloses and adjective or adverb:
so+ adjective or adverb+ that

j) She made so many mistakes that she failed the exam.
k) He has so few friends that he is always lonely.
l) She has so much money that she can buy whatever she wants.
m) He had so little trouble with the test that he left twenty minutes early.
So...that is used with many,m few much, and little.

n) It was such a good book( that) I could not put it down.
o) I was so hungry ( that) I did not wait for dinner to eat something.
Sometimes, primarily in speaking, that is omitted.

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Exercise 9 Using SUCH ....THAT and SO ..... THAT
Direction: Combine the sentences by using so.....that...or such....that

1. This tea is good. I think I will have another cup.
This tea is so good that I think I will have another cup.

2. This is good tea. I think I will have another cup.
This is such good tea that I think I will have another cup.

3. It was an expensive car. We could not afford to buy it.
It was such an expensive car that we could not afford to buy it.

4. The car was expensive. We could not afford to buy it.
The car was so expensive that we could not afford to buy it.

5. The weather was hot. You could fry an egg on the sidewalk.
The weather was so hot that you could fry an egg on the sidewalk.

6. During the summer, we had hot and humid weather. It was uncomfortable just sitting in a chair doing nothing.
During the summer ,we had such hot and humid weather that it was uncomfortable just sitting in a chair doing nothing.

7. I do not feel like going to work. We are having beautiful weather.
We are having such beautiful weather that I do not feel like going to work.

8. Ivan takes everything in life too seriously.He is unable to experience the small joys and pleasures of daily living.
Ivan takes everything in life so seriously that he is unable to experience the small joys and pleasures of daily living.

9.I have met too many people in the last few days. I can not possible remember all of their names.
I have met so many people in the last few days that I can not possible remember all of their names.

10. Tommy ate too much candy. He got a stomachache.
Tommy ate so much candy that he got a stomachache.

11. It took us only ten minutes to get there. There was little traffic.
There was so little traffic that it took us only ten minutes to get there.

12. In some countries, few students are accepted by the universities.
 As a result, admission is virtually a guarantee of a good job upon graduation.

In some countries, so few students are accepted by the universities that admission is virtually a guarantee of a good job upon graduation. ( virtually = really, actually )

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 EXERCISE 10. Using   SUCH....... THAT........and SO...... THAT.

1. The wind was strong . It blew my hat off my head.
2. Karen is a good pianist. I am surprised she did not go into music professionally.
3. The radio was too loud. I could not hear what Michael was saying.
4. Small animals in the forest move about quickly. One can barely catch a glimpse of them
5. Olga did poor work. SHe was fired from her job.
6. The food was too hot. It burned my tongue.
7. There are many leaves on a single tree. It is impossible to count them
8. The tornado struck with great force. It lifted automobiles off the ground.
9. Grandpa help me tightly when he hugged me. I could not breathe for a moment.
10. Few students showed up for class. The teacher postponed the test.
11. Sally used too much paper when she was writing her report. The wastepaper basket overflowed.

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19-3 Summary of PATTERNS OF PATTERNS AND PUNCTUATION.

19-3 Summary of PATTERNS  OF PATTERNS AND PUNCTUATION.

Adverb Clause------ a) Because it was hot, we went swimming.
                                  b) We went swimming because it was hot.

An adverb clause may precede or follow an independent clause.
Punctuation: A comma is used if the adverb clause comes first.


Preposition---------- c) Because of the hot weather, we went swimming.
                                 d) We went swimming because of the hot weather.

A preposition is followed by a noun object, not by a subject and verb.
Punctuation: A comma is usually used if the prepositional phrase precedes the subject and verb of the independent clause.

Conjunction ---------h) It was hot, so we went swimming.

A comjusction comes between two independent clauses.
Punctuation: Usually a comma is used immediately in front of a conjunction.

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A semicolon may be used instead of a period between the two independent clauses.

It was hot;therefore, we went swimming.
It was hot; we therefore, went swimming.
It was hot; we went swimming, therefore.

In general, a semicolon can be used instead of a period between any two sentences that are closely related in meaning. Example: Peanuts are not nuts; they are beans. Notice that a small letter, not a capital letter, immediately follows a semicolon.

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Exercise 7. Showing cause and effect. ( Chart 19-3)
Part 1. We postponed our trip. The weather was bad.
1. because------      We postponed our trip because the weather was bad.
                               Because the weather was bad, we postponed our trip.

2. therefore ------    The weather was bad, Therefore, we postponed our trip. or  We, therefore, postponed our trip. We postponed our trip, therefore.

3. since -------------Since the weather was bad, we postponed our trip. or We postponed our trip since the weather was bad.

4. so ------------------The weather was bad, so we postponed our trip.

5. because of --------Because of the bad weather, we postponed our trip. or We postponed our trip because of the bad weather.

Part 2. She missed class. She was ill.
1. because of ------------        Because of her illness, she missed class. or She missed class because of her illness.

2. because -----------------      Because she was ill, she missed class. or She missed class because she was ill.

3. consequently -----------     She was ill. Consequently, she missed class. or She, consequently, missed class. or She missed class, consequently.

4. so------------------------      She was ill, so she missed class.

5. due to( the fact that) -----  Due to the fact that she was ill, she missed class. or She missed class due to the fact that she was ill.

6. therefore------------------    She was ill. Therefore, she missed class. or She,therefore, missed class.or She missed class, therefore.
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Summary of Patterns and Punctuation
Students are learning structural distinctions in the use coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, adverbial  prepositional phrases, and conjunctive adverbs by using cause and effect sentences as models. The patterns and terminology ( conjunction, adverb clause, preposition, transition) they are learning here will transfer to the following units on opposition and condition. The term conjunction in this chart is used to refer to coordination conjunctions, include the term  coordination if you think it helps your students make distinctions among the differing patterns.

A wall chart, cards, or a transparency of the patterns and punctuation may prove useful not only here but also for the charts and exercises in the rest of this chapter.

For example: Adverb clause,--------- adverb clause.
Prepositional phrase, --------prepositional phrase.
--------. Transition,--------.
---------.--------,transition.
-----------,conjuction--------.

When some students discover the semicolon, they tend to use it everywhere. You might point out that it is not often used, even by professional writers. If students overuse it, tell them to look at any English text and see how many semicolons they can find. Chances are they will find very few. Many native speakers are unsure about its correct use. A period ( full stop) is usually acceptable or even preferable.

You might call attention to the relationship between a comma in written English and a slight pause in spoken English. ( Ruddle: What is the difference between a cat and a comma? Answer: A cat has claws at the end of its paws, and a comma is a pause at the end of a clause).
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Exercise 8 Showing cause and efect. ( Charts 19-2 and 19-3)
Directions: Comvine ideas, using the words in parentheses.

1. We stayed home. The weather was bad.( because of)
We stayed home because the weather was bad. or Because the weather was bad, we stayed home.

2. Emily has never wanted to return to the Yukon to live. The winter are too severe.( because of) 
Because of the severe winters, Emily has never wanted to return to the Yukon to live.

3. It is important to wear a hat on cold days. We lose sixty percent of our body heat through our head.(since)
It is important to wear a hat on cold days since we lose sixty percent of our body heat through our head. or Since we lose sixty percent of our body heat through our head, it is important to wear a hat on cold days.

4. When I was in my teens and twenties, it was easy for me to get into an argument with my father. Both of us can be stubborn and opinionated. ( for)
When I was in my teens and twenties, it was easy for me to get into an argument with my father, for both of us can be stubborn and opinionated.

5. A camel can go completely without water for eight to ten days. It is an ideal animal for desert ares. ( due to the fact that)
Due to the fact that a camel can go completely without water for eight to ten days, it is an ideal animal for desert areas. Or A camel is an ideal animal for desert areas due to the fact that it can go completely without water for eight to ten days.

6. Bill could not pick us up after the concern. His car would not start. ( therefore)
Therefore, he could not pick us up after the concert. He therefore, could not pick us up after the concert. He could not pick us up after the concert, therefore.

7. Robert had to ask many of the same questions again the next time he talked to the travel agent. He did not pay close attention to what she said when he went to see her at her office last week. ( so)
Robert did not pay close attention to what the travel agent said when he went to see her at her office last week, so he had to ask many of the same questions again the next time he talked to her.

8. A tomato is classified as a fruit, but most people consider it a vegetable. It is often eaten is salads along with lettuce, onions, cucumbers, and other vegetables. ( since)
A tomato is classified as a fruit, but most people consider it a vegetable since it is often eaten in salads along with lettuce, onions, cucumbers, and other vegetables. or Since it is often eaten in salads along with lettuce, onions, cucumbers, and other vegetables, a tomato is classified as a fruit.

9. There is consumer demand for ivory. Many African elephants are being slaughtered ruthlessly, Many people who care about saving these animals from extinction refuse to buy any item made from ivory. ( due to, consequently)
Due to consumer demand for ivory, many African elephants are being slaughtered ruthlessly. Consequently, many people who care about saving these animals from extinction refuse to buy any item made from ivory. or Many people who care about saving these animals from extinction, consequently, refuse to a buy any item made from ivory. Or Many sailors of the 15th century refused to venture forth with explorers into unknown waters because most Europeans of the time believed the world was flat and that a ship could conceivably sail off the end of the earth. ( conceivable= possible; venture forth= go out into a new, possible dangerous area)

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19-2 Using transitions to show cause and effect: THEREFORE and CONSWQUENTLY

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a) AL failed the test because he did not study.
b) Al did not study. Therefore, he failed the test.
c) Al did not study. Consequently, he failed the test.

(a), (b),and (c) have the same meaning. Therefore and consequently mean "as result." In grammar, they are called transitions ( or conjunctive adverbs). Transitions connect the ideas between two sentences.

d) Al did not study. Therefore, he failed the test.
e) Al did not study. He, therefore failed the test.
f) Al did not study. He failed the test, therefore.

POSITIONS OF A TRANSITION
           transition+ S+V(+ rest of sentence)
           S+transition +V (rest of sentence)
           S+V(+rest of sentence) + transition

A transition occurs in the second of two related sentences. Notice the patterns and punctuation in the examples. A period is used at the end of the first sentence. The transition has several positions in the second sentence. The transition is separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

g) Al did not study, so failed the test.
 Compare: A transition ( therefore) has several possible positions withing the second sentence of the par, as in(d),(e), and (f). A conjunction ( so) has only one possible position: between the two sentences. SO can not move around in the second sentence as therefore can.

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Exercise 4. Using THEREFORE and CONSEQUENTLY (Chart 19-2) page 387

1. The children stayed home because a storm was approaching. Therefore, the children stayed home.
A storm was approaching. The children, therefore, stayed home.
A storm was approaching. The children stayed home, therefore.

2. I did not have my umbrella. Consequently, I got wet.
I did not have my umbrella. I , consequently, got wet.
I did not have my umbrella. I got wet, consequently.
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EXERCISE 5. Showing cause and effect. ( Charts 16-3, 17-2,19-1,and 19-2)

1. adverb clause: Because it was cold, she wore a coat.
2. adverb clause: She wore a coat because it was cold.
3. prepositional phrase: Because of the cold weather, she wore a coat.
4. prepositional phrase: She wore a coat because of the cold weather.
5. transition: The weather was cold. Therefore she wore a coat.
6. transition: The weather was cold. She, therefore wore a coat.
7. transition: The weather was cold. She wore a coat, therefore.
8. conjunction: The weather was cold, so she wore a coat.

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Exercise 6. Showing cause and effect

1. Pat always enjoyed studying sciences in high school therefore she decided to major in biology in college.
1.  Pat always enjoyed studying sciences in high school. Therefore, she decided to major in biology in college.

2. Due to recent improvements in the economy fewer people are unemployed.
2.  Due to recent improvements in the economy, fewer people are unemployed.

3. Last night's storm damaged the power lines consequently  the town was without electricity for several hours.
3.  Last night's storm damaged the power lines, consequently the town was without electricity for several hours.

4. Because of the snowstorm only five students came to class the teacher therefore canceled the class.
4.  Because of the snowstorm, only five students came to class. The teacher, therefore, canceled the class.

5.Anna always makes numerous spelling mistakes in her compositions because she does not use a dictionary when she writes.
5. Anna always makes numerous spelling mistakes in her compositions, because she does not use a dictionary when she writes.

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Chapter 19 19-1 Using BECAUSE OF and DUE TO

Contents

19-1 Using because of and due to
19-2 Using transitions to show cause and effect: therefore and consequently
19-3 Summary of patterns and punctuation
19-4 Other ways of ecpressing cause and effect: such....that...and so... that
19-5 Expressing purpose: using so that
19-6 Showing contrast ( unexpected result)
19-7 Showing direct contrast
19-8 Expressing conditions: using otherwise and or ( else)
19-9 Summary of connectives: cause and effect, contrast, condition.
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Exercise 1 Preview ( Charts 19-1  19-3)
1. Because Rosa's computer skills were poor she was not considered for the job.
2. Rosa's computer skills were poor. Therefore she was not considered for the job.
3. Because Rosa's computer skills were poor, she was not considered for the job.
4. Because Rosa's computer skills were poor, she was not considered for the job or
   Rosa's computer skills were poor, so she was not considered for the job.
5. Due to her poor computer skills, Rosa was not considered for the job.
6. Risa's computer skills were poor, she was not considered for the job.

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A common error is for a learner to begin an adverb clause with because of.

INCORRECT: He stayed home because of he was ill.

A phrasal preposition is a phrase that functions as a single preposition.

Traditionally, a distinction has been made between because of and due to: because of is used adverbially. ( He stayed home because of illness), and due to is used adjectivally (His absence is because of illness.)

Owing to is used in the same ways as because of and due to, more in spoken that written English.

Note that punctuation rules are the same for these phrases as for adverb clauses.
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19-1 Using BECAUSE OF and DUE TO

a) Because the weather was cold, we stayed home. 
Because introduces an adverb clause;it is followed by a subject and verb, is in.

b) Because of the cold weather, we stayed home.
c) Due to the cold weather, we stayed home.
Because of and due to are phrasal prepositons; they are followed by a noun object, as in(b) and (c)

d) Due to the fact that the weather was cold, we stayed home.
Sometimes, usually in more formal writing, due to is followed by a noun clause introduced by the fact that.

e) We stayed home because of the cold weather
    We stayed home due to the cold weather.
    We stayed home due to the fact that the weather was cold.
Like adverb clauses, these phrases can also follow the main clause, as in (e)

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Exercise 2 Using BECAUSE and BECAUSE OF page 386
1. We postponed our trip because of the bad driving conditions.

2. Sue's eyes were red because she had been swimming in a chlorinated pool.

3. We can not visit the museum tomorrow because it is not open.

4. Jim had to give up jogging because his sprained ankle.

5. Because of heavy fog at the airport, we had to stay in London an extra day.

6. Because the elevator was broken, we had to walk up six flights of stairs.

7. Thousands of Irish people emigrated to the United States because of the potato famine in Ireland in the mid-19 century.

8.The young couple decided not to buy the house because its dilapidated condition.

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Exercise 3 Using BECAUSE OF and DUE TO.

1. Because of our parent's generosity, all of the children in our family have received the best of everything.

2.We were late to the meeting due to the heavy traffic.

3. Bill has to do all of the cooking and cleaning because of his wife's illness.

4. Due to Dr.Robinson's excellent research on wolves, we know much more today about that endangered species that we did even five years ago.

5. I could not get to sleep last night because of the noise in the next apartment.

6.Due to circumstances beyond my control, I regret to say that I can not be present at your daughter's wedding.

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20-11 Usisng WOULD to make wishes about the future. EXCERCISE 29. 30. 31.

WHEN SPEAKERS WANT SOMETHING TO HAPPEN IN THE FUTURE AND THINK IT IS POSSIBLE, THE USUALLY USE HOPE TO INTRODUCE THIER IDEA:
 I HOPE THEY COME. I HOPE THEY WILL COME .
 WHEN THEY WANT SOMETHING TO HAPPEN BUT THINK IT IS PROBABLE NOT POSSIBLE, THEY PROBABLE USE WISH :
I WISH THEY WOULD COME.

A COMMON MISTAKE IS THE USE OF WILL IN THE NOUN CLAUSE FOLLOWING WISH:
   INCORRECT:    I WISH THEY WILL COME.

EXERCISE 29 Using WOULD to make wishes. page 434

Example:
Tom: Why are you watching the telephone?
 Sue : I am waiting to hear from Sam. I want him to call me. I need to talk to him right now. We had an argument. I need to make sure everything's okay.
Tom: Watching the phone will make it ring, you know.

a) What does Sue want to happen in the near future? ( Use wish+ would)
 She wishes Sam would call her. SHe wishes she could talk to Sam right now.
She probable wishes she and Sam had not had an argument.
b) What else does Sue wish?
 She wishes the phone would ring.

1. Rita: It is raining. I want to go for a walk, but not in the rain.
    Yoko: I want the rain to stop, too.
a) What does Rita want to happen in the near future? Rita wishes that it would stop raining.
b) What does Yoko wish? Yoko also wishes it would stop raining.

2. Anna: Can not you come to the concert? Please change your mind. I would really like you , to come.
 Yoko: No, I can not. I have to work.
 a) What does Anna want Yoko to do?  Anna wishes Yoko would come to the concert. Anna wishes Yoko would change her mind.
b) What else does Anna wish? Anna wishes Yoko would change her mind.

3. Bob's mother : DO you really like how you look with a beard?
Bob: Yes.
Bob's mother: Do not you want to shave it off?
Bob: Nope.
a) What does Bob's mother want Bob to do? Bob's mother wishes he would shave off his beard.
b) What does Bob probably wish? Bob probably wishes his mother would not try to tell him what to do.

4. Helen is neat and orderly person. Jude, her  roommate, is messy. Judy never picks up after herself. She leaves dirty dishes in the sink. She drops her clothes all over the apartment. She clutters the apartment with her stuff everywhere. She never makes her bed. Helen nags Judy to pick up after herself.
a) What does Helen want Judy to do?  Helen wishes Judy would pick up after herself, wash her dirty dishes, pick up her clothes and other stuff, and make her bed.
b) What does Judy probably wish? Judy probably wishes Helen would not nag her to pick up after herself.

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Exercise 30. WISH page 435

1. We need some help. I wish Alfred were here now. If he were ,we could finish this work very quickly.

2. We had a good time in Houston over vacation. I wish you had come with us. If you had come with us, you would have had a good time.

3. I wish it were not so cold today. If it were not so cold , I could go swimming.

4. I missed part of the lecture because I was daydreaming, and now my notes are incomplete. I wish I had paid more attention to the lecturer.

5.A: Did you study for that test?
B: No, but now I wish I had because I flunked it.

6. A: Is the noise from the TV in the next apartment bothering you?
B:Yes, I am trying to study. I wish I would turn it down.

7. A: What a beautiful day! I wish I were lying in the sun by a swimming pool instead of sitting in a classroom.
B: I wish I were anywhere but here!

8. A: I wish we did not have to go to work today.
   B: So do I. I wish it were a  holiday.

9. A: He could not have said that! That is impossible. You must have misunderstood him.
   B: I only wish I had, but I am sure I heard him correctly.

10. Alice does not like her job as a nurse. She wishes she had not gone to nursing school.

11. A: I know that something's  bothering you. I wish you would tell me what it is.Maybe I can help.
     B: I appreciate it, but I can not discuss it now.

12. A: My feet are killing me! I wish I were wearing more comfortable shoes.
  B: Yeah, me too. I wish I had known that we were going to have to walk this much.
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Exercise 31. Using WISH page 436

1. Where do you wish you were right now? What do you wish you were doing?
2. Are you pleased with the weather today, or do you wish it were different?
3. Look around this room. What do you wish were different?
4. Is there anything you wish were different about the place you are living?
5. What do you wish were different about this town?
6. What do you wish were different about this country?
7. What do you wish were different about a student's life? about a worker's life?
8. Where do you wish you could go on your next vaction?
9. Your friend gave you his phone number, but you did not write it down because you thoght you would remember it.Now you have forgotten the number. What do you wish?

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Verb forms following WISH exercise 26. 27. 28

Wish is used when the speaker wants reality to be different, to be exactly the opposite.

A wish about the future.
a)  She will not tell me
 I wish that she would tell me.
b) He is not going to be here.
 I wish he were going to be here.
c)  She can not come tomorrow.
 I wish she could come tomorrow.

A wish about the present.
d)  I do not know French.
 I wish I knew French.
e) It is raining right now.
 I wish it were not raining right now.
f)  I can not speak Japanese.
 I wish I could speak Japanese.

A wish about the past.
g)  John did not come.
  I wish John had come.
h)  Mary could not come.
  I wish Mary could have come.

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NOUN clause verbs following wish are in a past form. The past form signifies contrary to fact - just as it does in conditional sentences in if- clauses. Discuss verb relationships:

"true" sitation -------   "wish" situation
Simple present  ------ Simple past
Present Progressive---Simple past
Simple Past-------------Past Progressive
Present Perfect---------Past Perfect
Will--------------------- Would
Am/Is/Are going to ---Was/Were going to
Can-----------------------Could
Could+Simple Form---Could Have+ past perticiple

WISH can also be followed by an infinitive, I wish to know the results of the test as soon as possible. In this instance, wish is usually a more formal way of saying want,or a more direct ( possible impolite or imperious) way of saying would like.  

The subjunctive use of WERE instead of WAS with I/he/she/it is considered formal by some, standard by others.

SOME teachers like to compare HOPE and WISH. :))
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Exercise 26. Verb forms following WISH.

1. Our classroom does not have any windows. I wish our classroom had windows.
2. The sun is not shining. I wish the sun were shining.
3. I did not go shopping. I wish I had gone shopping.
4. I do not know how to dance. I wish I knew how to dance.
5. You did not tell them about it. I wish you had told them about it.
6. It is cold today. I am not wearing a coat. I wish I were wearing a coat.
7. I do not have enough money to buy that book. I wish I had enough money.
8. Elena is tired because she went to bed late last night. She wishes she had gone to bed earlier last night.
9. I can not go with you tomorrow, but I wish he could.
10. My friend will not ever lend me his car. I wish he would lend me his car for my date tomorrow night.
11. Mrs.Takasawa is not coming to dinner with us tonight. I wish she were coming to dinner with us.
12. The teacher is going to give and exam tomorrow. I wish she were not going to give us an exam tomorrow.
13. You can not meet my parents. I wish you could meet them.
14. Khalid did not come to the meeting. I wish he had come to the meeting.
15. I am not lying on a beach in Hawaii. I wish I were lying on a beach in Hawaii.

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Exercise 27. Activity: verb forms following WISH
Discuss the questions.

1. What is something you can not do, but you wish you could do?
2. What is you wish you were doing right now?
3. What is something you do not have but wish you had?
4. What is something that did not happen yesterday, but that you wish had happened?
5. What is something that has never happened in your life but that you wish would happen?
6. What is something that happened in your life, but that you wish had not happen?
7. What is something you have to do but wish you did not have to do?
8. What is something that will not happen tomorrow, but that you wish would happen?
9. What is something you do not know but wish you knew?
10. What is something you were unable to do yesterday, but you wish you could have done?

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Exercise 28 page 433

1. I am not at home, but I wish I WERE.
2. I do not know her, but I wish I DID.
3. I can not sing well, but I wish I COULD .
4. I did not go, but I wish I HAD.
5. He will not talk about it, but I wish he WOULD.
6. I did not read that book, but I wish I HAD.
7. I want to go, but I can not. I wish I COULD.
8. I do not have a bicycle, but I wish I DID.
9. He did not buy a ticket to the game, but he wishes he HAD.
10. She can not speak English, but she wishes she COULD.
11. It probable will not happen, but I wish it WOULD.
12. He is not old enough to drive a car, but he wishes he WERE.
13. They did not go to the movie, but they wish they HAD. ( why is Had not Have?)
14. I do not have a driver license, but I wish I DID.
15. I am not living in an apartment, but I wish I WERE.

Exercise 25. using As IF/As Thought ( Chart 20-9)

20-9 USING AS IF/AS THOUGH

a) It looks like rain
b) It looks as if it is going to rain
c) It looks as though it is going to rain
d) It looks like it is going to rain ( informal) 

Notice in a)like is followed by a noun object.
Notice in b) and c) as if and as though are followed by a clause.
Notice in d) like is followed by a clause. This use of like is common in informal English, but is not generally considered appropriate in formal ENglish   as if or as though is preferred.




e) He is not a child.
She talked to him as if he were a child.

d) She did not take a shower with her clothes on.
When she came in from the rainstorm, she looked as if she had taken a shower with her clothes on.

g) He has met her.
He acted  as though he had never met her.

h) She will be here.
She spoke as if she would not be here.

USUALLY THE IDEA FOLLOWING  AS IF/AS THOUGH IS  untrue. IN THIS CASE, VERB USAGE IS SIMILAR TO THAT IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCE.

Exercise page430

1. I was not run over by a ten ton truck.
I feel terrible. I feel as if I had been run over by a ten ton truck.

2. English is not her native tongue.
She speaks English as if it were her native tongue.

3. You did not see a ghost.
What is the matter? You look as if you had seen a ghost.

4. His animals are not people.
I know a farmer who talks to his animals as though they were people.

5. His father is not a general in the army.
Sometimes his father gives orders as though he were a general in the  army.

6. I did not climb Mt. Everest.
When I reached the fourth floor, I was winded. I felt as if I had climbed Mt. Everest.

7. He does have a brain in his head.
Sometimes he acts as though he does not have a brain in his head.

8. We have not known each other all of our lives.
We became good friends almost immediately. After talking to each other for only a short time, we felt as if we had known each other all of our lives.

9. A giant bulldozer did not drive down Main Street.
After the tornado, the town looked as though a giant bulldozer had driven down Main Street.

10. I do not have wings and can not fly.
I was so happy that I felt as though I had wings and could fly.

11. The child will not burst.
The child was so excited that he looked as if he would burst.

12. NOTE: The following sentiments were expressed by Helen Keller, a woman who was both blind and deaf but who learned to speak and to read.
Use your eyes as if tomorrow you would become blind. Hear the music of voice, the song of a bird, as if you would become deaf tomorrow. Touch each object as if tomorrow you would never be able to feel anything again. Smell the perfume of the flowers and taste with true enjoyment each bite of food as if tomorrow you would never be able to smell and taste again.